c. 1300, "to count," from Old French nombrer "to count, reckon," from nombre (n.) "number" (see number (n.)). Meaning "to assign a distinctive number to" is late 14c.; that of "to ascertain the number of" is from early 15c. Related: Numbered; numbering.
early 15c., numeracioun, "method or process of numbering or calculating," from Latin numerationem (nominative numeratio) "a counting out, paying, payment," noun of action from past-participle stem of numerare "to count, number," from numerus "number" (see number (n.)). Meaning "act or process of counting the number of" is from mid-15c.
"next in order after the ninety-ninth; an ordinal numeral; being one of one hundred equal parts into which a whole is regarded as divided;" early 14c., "one of 100 equal parts," from hundred + -th (1). According to OED, Old English had no ordinal form. The hymn tune known as Old Hundredth is attested from mid-16c., so called because later it was set to the 100th Psalm in the old numbering of the psalter.
mid-15c., "numbering," later (1530s) "marginal notation," noun of action from quote (v.) or else from Medieval Latin quotationem (nominative quotatio), noun of action from past-participle stem of quotare "to number."
Meaning "an act of quoting or citing" is from 1640s; that of "passage quoted, that which is repeated or cited as the utterance of another speaker or writer" is from 1680s. Meaning "the current price of commodities or stocks, as published," is by 1812. Quotation mark, one of the marks to denote the beginning and end of a quotation, is attested by 1777.
1530s, "withdraw, withhold, take away, deduct," a back-formation from subtraction (q.v.), or else from Latin subtractus, past participle of subtrahere "take away, draw off." Related: Subtracted; subtracting. Mathematical calculation sense is from 1550s. Earlier verb form was subtraien (early 15c. in the mathematical sense), which is directly from the Latin verb.
Here he teches þe Craft how þou schalt know, whan þou hast subtrayd, wheþer þou hast wel ydo or no. ["Craft of Numbering," c. 1425]
1630s, in theological writing, "reason, rationale," from Latin ratio "a reckoning, account, a numbering, calculation," hence also "a business affair; course, conduct, procedure," also in a transferred sense, of mental action, "reason, reasoning, judgment, understanding, that faculty of the mind which forms the basis of computation and calculation." This is from rat-, past-participle stem of reri "to reckon, calculate," also "to think, believe" (from PIE root *re- "to think, reason, count").
Latin ratio often was used to represent or translate Greek logos ("computation, account, esteem, reason") in works of philosophy, though the range of senses in the two do not overlap (ratio lacks the key "speech, word, statement" meaning in the Greek word; see Logos).
The mathematical sense of "relation between two similar magnitudes in respect to quantity," measured by the number of times one contains the other, is attested in English from 1650s (it also was a sense in Greek logos). The general or extended sense of "corresponding relationship between things not precisely measurable" is by 1808.
1550, "the mental process of reasoning," later, "the relation of one number to another" (1660s), then "fixed allowance of food or other means of subsistence for a fixed period of time" (1702, often rations, from French ration in this sense).
All are from Latin rationem (nominative ratio) "reckoning, numbering, calculation; business affair, procedure," also "reason, reasoning, judgment, understanding," in Medieval Latin "a computed share or allowance of food." This is from rat-, past participle stem of reri "to reckon, calculate," also "think" (from PIE root *re- "to reason, count").
The first sense listed for the English word is obsolete; the second has gone with ratio. The military pronunciation (rhymes with fashion) took over in English from the preferred civilian pronunciation (rhymes with nation) during World War I. That war also gave the word a specific sense of "officially limited allowance for civilians in times of war or dearth" (by 1917).
"small cube marked on each face with spots numbering from one to six, used in gaming," early 14c. (as a plural, late 14c. as a singular), from Old French de "die, dice," which is of uncertain origin. Common Romanic (cognates: Spanish, Portuguese, Italian dado, Provençal dat, Catalan dau), perhaps from Latin datum "given," past participle of dare "to give" (from PIE root *do- "to give"), which, in addition to "give," had a secondary sense of "to play" (as a chess piece); or else the notion is "what is given" (by chance or Fortune).
The numbers on the opposite sides always add up to seven; otherwise there is no uniformity to their arrangement. Sense of "engraved stamping block or tool used for stamping a softer material" is from 1690s. Perhaps so called because they often were used in pairs (to impress on both sides, as of a coin).
Figurative phrase the die is cast "the decisive stem is taken" is from 1630s, in reference to the throw of the dice. The expression translates Latin alea iacta est (or iacta alea est), famously uttered by Caesar when he crossed the Rubicon.
